Contents

• Introduction to Genomics
• Introduction to Proteomics
• Functional Genomics
• Functional Proteomics
• Differences between genomics and proteomic
• Transcriptomics | Metabolimics
• Bioinformatics
• How genome and Proteome is related
• Application of Genomics and proteomics
• Why computer databases are important in genomics and proteomics
• Application of genomics and proteomics in crop improvement
• Genomics and Proteomics in Cancer
• Conclusions

Differences between genomics and proteomics

In the domain of genomics, we study about the set of genes present inside an organism or a cell, while proteomics is the detailed study of the entire protein set of an organism or a cell. However genomics and proteomics are closely related fileds of “omics” sciences.

Introduction to Genomics

Genomics is the field of biology related to the discovery and taking note of the entire genome of an organism. The genome is considered as the total set of genes present in the cell of an organism. Genomics, is, hence, the study and investigation of the genetic make-up of living beings.

Determination of the sequence of genomic DNA was just the starting of genomics. Later, this gene sequence was utilized to examine the function of the various genes present in the DNA (a part of functional genomics), for comparing genes of two organisms (a part of comparative genomics), or to produce the 3-D structure of proteins from every protein family, subsequently offering idea of their 3D structure (a part of structural genomics).

For crop based agricultural processes, the fundamental motive behind the application based introduction of genomics is to understand the entire genome of plants. Agronomically significant genes might be distinguished and focused on to deliver more nutritious and safe food while simultaneously protecting environement.

Genomics is a beginning for taking a glance at the other streams of science linked to ‘omics’. The genetic information of an organism, its genotype, is responsible for the morphology or the external appearance of the organism, known as the “phenotype” of that organism. Although, the phenotype of an organism is also dependent on the environmental factors

DNA in the genome is just a single part of the life processes that keeps an organism alive – so interpreting the DNA is one stage towards understanding the cycle. Not withstanding, without help from anyone else, it doesn’t indicate all that occurs inside the living being.

Introduction to Proteomics

Proteomics is considered as the large scale analysis and study of proteins, generally by biochemical strategies. The word proteomics has been traditionally related with showing huge amount of proteins from a given organism or cell line on two dimensional polyacrylamide gels(2D-PAGE).

 In this context proteomics as of now traces all the way back to the last part of the 1970s when researchers began to assemble the information or database of proteins utilizing the  recently created strategy of two-dimensional gel  electrophoresis. This came about in broad listing

of spots from two-dimensional gels to make data sets of every protein expressed in an organism. Although, in a case, when such gels could be run reproducibly between labs, identifying the proteins was troublesome as a result of a need

of rapid analytical and sensitive strategies for protein identification, detection and characterization, (for example, automated DNA sequencing and polymerase chain reaction for DNA examination).

During the 1990s, mass spectrometry for biological samples arose as an amazing analytical strategy that eliminated a large portion of the restrictions, limitations and shortcomings of protein investigation and analysis. This turn of events, combined with the accessibility of the whole human coding sequence in the publically available database, denotes the start of another era.

Now days, the term proteomics covers a significant part of the functional gene analysis or ‘functional genomics’, including interaction studies via yeast two hybrid system, localization and identification of proteins on a large scale. The more extensive large scale investigation of protein structure, in any case, is generally excluded and assigned ‘underlying genomics’ instead.

 Moreover, procedures that target just genes or mRNA, like anti sense experiments or large scale mutagenesis, ought not be viewed as a part of proteomics.

Why is proteomics necessary?

There are various reasons justifying the importance of proteomics in modern day research we are going to discuss why proteomics is necessary for present day molecular biology.

The proteomics gives idea about the biological function of proteins by using large amount of data sets. Proteomics derive data sets either by amino acid sequences of proteins or by analyzing database of gene sequences which is later converted into the amino acid sequence by using software tools.

We are about to explore the immense potential of proteomics and associated techniques with special emphasis on their role in advanced molecular biology.

With the gathering of huge amount of DNA sequences in data sets, scientists are understanding that simply having complete genomic sequence isn’t adequate to explain the exact biological function of a protein. A cell is ordinarily subject to a large number of regulatory and metabolic pathways for its endurance or survival. There is no direct connection between genes and the proteome of a cell.

Proteomics is complementary and corresponding to genomics since it Is concerned  about the product of the gene. Thus, proteomics straightforwardly adds to drug developments as practically all drugs are synthesized against proteins.

The presence of an open reading frames (ORF) in genomic data sets doesn’t really infer the presence of a functional and active gene. Regardless of the advancements in bioinformatics, it is still hard to foresee genes precisely from genomic database . Albeit the sequencing of related living beings will facilitate the issue of accurate prediction of gene via comparative genomics, the rate of success for right prediction of the sequence is still low.

This is especially correct on account of small genes (which can be missed completely) or the genes having almost no homology to other genes which are already known. A latest investigation revealed that the mistake rate was as least as 8% in the annotation for 340 genes obtained from the genome of Mycoplasma genitalium.

In the event that such error rates are extrapolated to the Genome of humans, the result can be predicted easily. Hence, confirmation of a product of gene by proteomic techniques is a significant starting step in the genome annotating.

Key Information related to Proteomics

Proteomics gives an incredible arrangement of tools for the enormous scope study  to study the functioning of a gene at the protein level. Specifically, the mass spectrometric investigation of gel-isolated proteins is prompting a renaissance in biochemical methods to deal with protein function. Protein

Characterization and identification will keep on working to enhance sensitivity, throughput and completeness. Post-translational modifications can’t right now be learned at high throughput yet certain sub types such as phosphorylation are being amiable to nonexclusive approaches. In future, proteomics will move away from the observing of protein-protein interactions data which is going to influence the whole biological sciences and go beyond two dimensional gel electrophoresis based protein expression monitoring.

Mass spectrometry-based techniques that utilization chromatography (affinity purification) followed by only one-dimensional electrophoresis is expected to gain importance. Soon, proteomics will give an abundance of protein–protein cooperation data sets, which will likely be its most significant and prompt effect on biological science. Since Protein is one step nearer to work than the gene, these examinations Will lead directly to hypothesis and biological discovery.

The prepared accessibility of numerous genes of human origin as full-length clones is itself a critical augmentation of the genome projects that will make feasible proteomic procedures. Biochemical assays to decide protein function utilizing purified proteins will be mechanized (automated) and operated in scaled down framework designs (miniature formats) simultaneously for thousands of proteins.

Lastly, advancements in genomics will straight forwardly fuel biochemical assays for proteins on a larger scale by the utilization of genetic readouts, for example, the two-hybrid screen.

A great amount of data has been gathered from the stunning methods of genome sequencing and this has been stored in the databases; bioinformatics tools are being created to separate the valuable data for fruitful usage of the genomics and proteomics information. Genome sequencing projects have been in progress since the time human genome sequencing was begun in 1990. Genomes of many living organisms were sequenced alongside the human genome. Afterward, a lot more complicated genomes were additionally sequenced to be used their latent capacity.

The explanation for this eminent progression could be ascribed to the improvements in sequencing innovations throughout the decades, which came about in a hundredfold decrease in cost per base sequence. It was thought that the ‘next generation sequencing methods’ will decrease the expense of genome sequencing further and help to promote and acknowledge individual genome sequencing.

Significant difficulties contain creating Sensitive and reliable tools and software to recognize the genes from genome sequencing information, and allotting genes their functions identified through bioinformatics which frequently requires manual inputs.

The investigation of proteins is going through an extreme change from conventional protein science to proteomics, under which many new branches, such as phosphoproteomics, structural proteomics, glycoproteomics, clinical proteomics, cell proteomics, and so on, are evolving. Combined with mass spectroscopy, protein separation methods like chromatography and two dimensional poly acrylamide gel electrophoresis (2D-PAGE) have given an detailed examination of numerous proteins in a quicker and cost efficient way.

In spite of the fact that genomics and proteomics are very promising in providing solutions to numerous complex problems in biology, considerably more exploration must be conveyed out to make the methods and data present in the tremendous databases helpful in different fields, like food and agriculture, medical services, environment, and forensic sciences. Attributable to the improvement of ‘omics’, another branch of science called systems biology’ is arising, which manages the examination of the genes and their interaction in living beings.

Methods, for example, SNP typing, Microarray, SAGE (Serial Analysis of Gene Expression) and 2D-PAGE have direct applications in disease analysis. The cost effectiveness, absence of automation and lesser sensibility resists the frequent utilization of these methods. For industrial application, these methods need to be optimized and automated, operation cost should be decreased, and furthermore the whole technique should be optimized and standardized.

Major work is required in the field of post-translational modification of proteins like phosphorylation and glycosylation, as numerous human disorders begin because of absence of legitimate post-translational modifications.

Our need for the coming years resides in functional identification to the Genes which are not known yet and are anticipated from the human genome sequencing. This could be sped up by comparitive genomics via looking at the human genome sequence with other life form genomes sequence taken as model. This will help in finding homologous genes in the organisms; if the gene function is known in the model organism, a equivalent function could be given to the human gene.

Almost certainly genomics and proteomics drew the interest of biotechnology industries as well as academicians into the innovative work of different fields in the previous twenty years, such examination may give more understanding of this biological aspect and may help in finding new targets for developing formulations to combat diseases.

Functional Genomics

Living beings modulate functions of their body by carefully adjusting the pattern of gene expression. Various techniques are accessible to contemplate pattern of gene expression in cells. After the genome sequencing, much consideration has been paid to develop study gene expression. A different part of genomics known as functional genomics has created.

We will elaborate the elements of genomes from a transcriptome, However functional genomics incorporates proteomics, phenomics and metabolomics.

Key concepts of functional genomics

• All genes in an organism are not expressed every point of time; only some genes are expressed every time while the other genes are expressed sometime or as per the requirement of the body.
• Earlier examinations were intended for the gene expression study exclusively for a single gene
• High throughput strategies for the determination of gene expression focus on all the transcribed genes or proteins in a cell.
• Northern blot is the oldest conventional technique to provide mRNA levelsof a single gene In a cell. It also provide relative information about the gene expression.
• Differential Display Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (DDRT-PCR) and Representational Display Analysis (RDA) are utilized to determine differential gene expression at mRNA level.
• SAGE is both a qualitative as well as a quantitative high throughput
• sequencing-based strategy to examine mRNA levels of the transcribed genes in a cell
• Microarray is a hybridization-based high throughput mRNA or transcript investigation technique which is fit for examining the pattern of expression of  huge number of genes at the same time.
• High throughput gene expression strategies like SAGE and microarray need computer programming to analyse data.

Introduction to Functional Genomics

To know the cell functioning of any life form, understanding function of its genes are essential. Conventionally in the field of molecular biology,  gene function of single genes were examined at a time. There was not much gene sequences were available at that time as well as high throughput methods of gene expression.

 Presently, the total sequence of genomes of numerous significant living beings is accessible; the time has come to examine numerous gene in a single investigation. The objective of the genome sequencing project is to know the functioning capacity of all the genes present in the genome at the same time.

The information which can be alloted to any Expressible gene can be:

– When the gene is going to express

• – How many copies of gene transcripts are present (expression level)

– The cells wherein the specific gene is transcribed

– What the other products of gene expression are present as a result of gene interaction

Conventional functional investigation of gene includes phenotypic knowledge of the gene and afterward the sequence of that gene. This method is known as forward genetics. Discovering the gene function from gene sequenceis known as reverse genetics. Subsequent to sequencing the entire genome of an Individual, one may ask, what next? Simply submitting large number of Sequences of DNA in the data set won’t yield any idea about the gene function and the sequence of the related genes.

Here’s the place where functional genomics comes in. It assists with identifying the gene function from their sequence utilizing both the experimental as well as computational strategies. Unless the gene function is clarified, the gene sequence information does not fulfil its purpose, and huge amount of money spent would become useless. Along these lines, utilitarian genomics enhances the genomics information (data) and at last makes them valuable for the welfare of human.

functional genomics includes the utilization of high throughput methods to examine every gene of an organism including all transcribed genes and all expressed proteins at a specific time in a cell. It depicts the genefunction and genetic interactions.

Various techniques are utilized to contemplate the expression of genes. Conventional strategies depended on the hybridization and they give data about the functioning of a single gene. After the era of genomics, numerous gene expressionprofiling techniques were created which are characterized via computerization for examining several samples at a time. It require a small amount of sample, and the synchronous investigation of thousands of genes.

Functional Proteomics

The end product in the expression of a gene is protein. They are the entities responsible for cellular function. The total proteins present in a cell at a given instance of time is known as the proteome. Functional proteomics involve distinctive protein separation strategies like mass spectrometry, 2D-PAGE,  structural and functional analysis of proteins present in a cell.

Introduction to Functional Proteomics

Key concepts

• Proteomics is the huge scale investigation of all the expressed proteins of a cell.
• Important methods in protein isolation and characterization involves liquid chromatography, 2D-PAGE and SDS-PAGE.
• SDS-PAGE is the most commonly utilized procedure for protein separation, Although it separates just a few proteins in a single gel.
• The 2D-PAGE method is designed for separating many proteins in a single gel (number may go beyond thousand).
• Mass spectrometry coupled with 2D-PAGE has become a common high throughput protein characterization and separation technique.
• Both 2D-PAGE and mass spectrometry are utilized to study quantitative proteomics.

Proteins acquired their essential role in cell functioning even before the DNA. Proteins are the most complicated entities among all biomolecules because of their diverse functions and structure. None of the cellular function operates without proteins. Ranging from primary to quaternary proteins have a lot of complexity in their structures.

Proteins are formed in accordance with the genetic information present in the sequence of DNA (gene) however for the process of replication of DNA involves proteins like (DNA polymerase). Proteins generally work In conjugation with other biomolecules (other proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, DNA etc.) inside the cells.

Proteins are the most unique substances and the absolute executers of cell Capacities and functions. In spite of the fact that DNA is the absolute storage facility of hereditary information, this information must be utilized in synthesizing proteins. Proteins

follow a general pathway in synthesis as well as in degradation. Process of Synthesis of Protein is  known as translation, proteins also undergo post-translational modifications in order to perform different functions. Linear polypertide chains of proteins undergo folding to adapt magnificent structures in their secondary and tertiary forms. Tertiary structure is essential for a protein to gain its biological activity. A fully mature protein in its tertiary form is ready to perform its assign function.

Transcriptomics | Metabolimics

Transcriptomics is the investigation of the transcriptome, it is the data of all the ribonucleic acid molecules (RNA) collectively that is available in a cell, tissue or an organ at a given instant of time. RNA performs diverse functions inside the cell, and examining the transcriptome gives better insights into the gene function and protein expression.

What is it?

There are several uses of transcriptomic which we will be discussing in details in this section. the input information which is required in transcriptomic and the end result of analysis.

The branch of transcriptomic involves the analysis of transcriptome, its the data which includes the entire set of RNAs obtained from a sample cell. transcriptomics gives a detailed idea about the protein expression as well as the gene expression of a cell.

In human beings, DNA fragments are replicated into RNA through a method known as transcription, permitting a cell to follow up on the ‘directions’ encoded in the DNA. Various kinds of RNA have various jobs: The messenger RNA (mRNA) is the first thing that is being produced during the journey of gene expression.  It acts as an intermediate molecule between DNA and protein, while other non-protein coding RNAs performs other cell functions. A  transcriptome of a cell is continually changing relying upon necessities and physiological conditions of a cell.

Transcriptomics is the exploratory investigation of the whole transcriptome, essentially utilizing RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), or the examination of known RNAs by utilizing gene expression panels (GEPs).

Metabolomics is one of the most advanced ‘omics’ sciences. The metabolome includes the total set of small biomolecules in the sample. These biomolecules are generally the by-products and substrates of enzyme catalyzed reactions taking place inside the cell and directly affect the cell phenotype. Hence, metabolomics provides the total profile of biomolecules present at time inside a cell in a specific physiological and environmental condition.

Genomics and proteomics have given huge amount of data in regards to the genotype however it conveys a restricted data about the phenotype. The biomolecules are the closest resemblance to that phenotype.

Metabolomics can be utilized to decide contrasts between the degrees of thousands of biomolecules between a normal and diseased cell.

Genomics gives an outline of the total set of genetic directions given by the DNA, while transcriptomics investigates patterns of gene expression. Proteomics examines dynamic proteins and interactions between proteins, while metabolomics gives insights about the metabolism and metabolic profile of a cell.

Bioinformatics

It is an interdisciplinary field that develops strategies and software based tools to gain understanding about the biological dataset, specifically when the informational collections are enormous and complicated. As multi-dimensional field of science, bioinformatics integrates science, software engineering, data science, statistics and mathematics to interpret and analyse the biological datasets.

Bioinformatics has been utilized for in silico investigations of biological inquiries utilizing bio-statistical and mathematical methods. Bioinformatics incorporates biological examinations that utilize computer programming as a feature of their technical approach, just for a specific analysis “pipelines” that are over and again utilized, especially in genomics.  Bioinformatics is commonly used to incorporate the identification of genes and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).

Regularly, such recognizable identifications are made with the point of better understanding the hereditary aspects of disease, unique variations, advantageous properties (especially in species related to agriculture), or contrasting characters between individuals. Bioinformatics additionally attempts to comprehend the organizational principles inside DNA and sequence of protein known as called proteomics.

How genome and Proteome is related

A few past reports have suggested that RNA levels can’t be utilized to anticipate protein levels. But, in another investigation from KTH Royal Institute of Technology which was published in the journal Molecular Systems Biology, researchers showed that protein levels can be anticipated from RNA levels if a RNA-to protein factor is utilized specific to that gene.

The human genome comprises of DNA, it contains the directions required For building as well as maintenance of cells. For the directions to be conveyed, DNA should be “read” also, transcribed into mRNA that can be utilized to synthesize protein. The transcriptome is a sum total of all the mRNA transcripts present in a cell. An important aspect of molecular biology is to analyse whether the given gene could be utilized for predicting its corresponding protein levels.

Scientists have created a mass spectrometry-based strategy that is reproducible as well as sensitive to quantify at consistent state conditions, total protein across the cell and contrasted these levels with the corresponding mRNA levels utilizing transcriptomics.

The corresponding mRNA transcript and protein levels don’t match accurately except if a gene specific RNA-to-protein (RTP) conversion factor autonomous of the cell type is presented, in this way altogether upgrading the predictability of the copy number of protein

From transcribed mRNA levels. The ratio of RTP differ a few significant degrees between various genes, up to a hundred thousand folds and is apparently conserved across various types of cell.

These new information recommend that transcriptome examination can be utilized as an tool to foresee the copy number of protein in a cell. There are numerous studies going on all throughout the world to deliberately decide the transcript levels inside the cells including new methods like single cell genomics and spatial transcriptomics.

This information suggests that the Knowledge based transcriptomics resources developed as a feature of these studies will be significant likewise for protein studies, consequently forming an appealing connection between the field of genomics and proteomics.

Application of Genomics and proteomics

The data and insights got from genomics Study can be applied in different settings, including social sciences, biotechnology and medicine. Proteomics is utilized to distinguish pattern of protein expression in reaction to a stimulus at a specific time, and furthermore to identify functional protein networks existing at the cellular level or in whole organism

Applications of Genomics

Medical applications

• Plant vaccines (oral) which provide immunity on utilization, Often use DNA and transgenes to make surface antigens. These plant vaccines are found to be promising in people for immunization against hepatitis B .
• Malarial infection risk is diminished up to 80%, by Two part vaccine formulated with DNA obtained from P. falciparum and modified Ankara virus.
• Fosmidomycin and FR-900098 are chemicals that are being tested for their inhibition potential against DOX reductoisomerase in the body, which plays an important role in the lifecycle of P. falciparum (a causative organism of cerebral malaria).
• Genetic advising and effective counselling has decreased paces of thalassemia in Sardinia from 1 of every 250 to 1 in 4000 live births.

Biotechnology applications

Genomics have a few applications, in the area of syntheticBiology and bioengineering. Scientists have illustrated That the making of a partially engineered types of microscopic organisms. For example Mycoplasma genitalium genome was utilized in combining Mycoplasma laboratorium bacterium, which is found to have unmistakable features when compared from original bacterium.

Social science applications

Conservationists utilize genomic sequencing information to assess key variables which are associated with conservation of species. This information can likewise be utilized to decide impacts of evolutionary processes and getting gene pattern of a particular populace, which can additionally assist with formulating plans to help the species and enable them to flourish into future.

Applications of Proteomics

Proteomics in medicine

• Proteomics was first used by Cancer Biologists for identification and prognostic purposes. For example in case of ovarian cancer, a serum-based proteomic based identification has been formed which points out another technique for disease identification.
• Data of Protein-sequencing which is presently accessible for different microorganisms, which promptly provide understanding about their antibiotic resistance and furthermore for Identifying novel candidates against anti-microbial resistance. Surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (SELDI-TOF) is presently used to quickly identify Chagas’ disease, tuberculosis, invasive aspergillosis and sleeping sickness.
• Further progressions in proteomics have permitted In detail examination of the mechanism behind cardiovascular diseases, providing not just the identified  altered proteins, yet additionally the idea of their alteration or modification.
• Proteomics is additionally transforming into a piece of safety control Process which is subjected to confirm the purity, efficiency, safety and identity of different blood products in transfusion medication.
• Proteomic approach is a significant method to carry out the worldwide screening of storage related lesions in the RBCs and to examine the physiological consequences of blood transfusion

Proteomics in drug development

• Proteomics assumes an extremely compelling part in a formulation development stage, as the disease mechanism are frequently shown at the protein level.
• Almost all pharma organizations presently have a proteomics division. Employments of proteomics in formulation industry primarily incorporates identification and approval. Biomarker identification efficacy and hazards from frequently available achievable biological liquids; and examinations concerning components of medication activity or toxicity.
• Proteome mining is utilized to find new antimalarial formulations which targets purine binding proteins in the blood infection phase.
• Major top-selling disease controlling formulations as of now are either proteins or they act by proteins targeting. Advancement of proteomics might help to make customized prescriptions for people, for better adequacy and less incidental side effects.

Why computer databases are important in genomics and proteomics

Biological databases are considered as the libraries of biological sciences, gathered from scientific laboratory experiments, high throughput experimental technology, computational examinations and published papers. They exhibit data from areas including phylogenetics, microarray gene expression, metabolomics, proteomics and even genomics.

Information present in the biological data sets incorporates similarity of biological structure and sequences, clinical effects of mutation, cellular and chromosomal localization of gene or protein, structure and function of protein or gene. Biological data sets can be extensively classified into functional, structural and sequence databases. Proteins and Nucleic acid sequence is loaded in databases containing sequences. However the structure of proteins and nucleic acid is available in structure containing databases.

Functional data sets give data about the role of gene products in physiology, such as metabolic pathways, phenotypes of the mutants, and biochemical activity of enzymes. Model Organism Databases are functional, it give information that is specific to the species. These databases are significant tools for helping researchers to examine and elaborate biological mechanisms from biomolecular interactions  and structures in the light of the entire metabolic process taking place in the organism and to understanding the species evolution.

This information helps initiate the battle against several diseases, helps in medical formulations, anticipating various hereditary diseases and in finding essential phylogenetic connections among species. Biological information is conveyed among a wide range of general and specialized data sets. This often makes it hard to guarantee the consistency of data. Integrative bioinformatics is one of the field endeavoring to handle this issue by giving unified access.

One arrangement is the means by which biological databases cross-refers to some other data sets with accession numbers to connect their information together. Relational data set, ideas of software engineering and Information recovery ideas of digital libraries are essential for understanding natural data sets. Designing a biological dataset, development and management of bioinformatics. Constituents of data incorporate information in the research papers, sequence of genes, classification of traits and ontology, tables and citations. These are frequently portrayed as semi-organized information, and can be presented as tables, XML structures and key delimited records.

Application of genomics and proteomics in crop improvement

With approaching environment changes, a quickly developing worldwide population that is anticipated to surpass 9 billion individuals inside thirty years, and expanding need for natural resources, like water and minerals, more prominent experiences into the establishments of sustainable production of food are expected to guarantee effective crop yields and applications.

To accomplish these goals, novel methods for ensure crops against biotic and abiotic stresses and for unwinding the mechanism of development of seed viability is needed. “Omics” methods keep on being promising methods for such investigations. As complete genomes are accessible for an expanding number of crops and model plants, integrated “Omics” or system biology approaches will assist with disentangling the under-lying mechanism of complex plant traits, like molecular level protection from stresses.

The far reaching use of quantitative proteomic methods in association with modern imaging procedures for the mapping and identification of PTMs is required to give definite understanding of protein regulation in complex biological assemblies. Such multidisciplinary systems will likewise support the plan of approaches for alleviating the harming impacts of plant stressors and advancing beneficial plant–microbial connections. Examination of system biology will likewise help in the reproducing of powerful crop yielding plants that are lenient to environmental stress and have high healthy benefit. Future of crop proteomic considers pointed toward understanding the structural reason for the communications between biomolecules will be critical for controlling the function of microbial proteins and related crops.

Genomics and Proteomics in Cancer

Malignancy advancement is driven by the collection of DNA changes in the around 40 000 genes present on chromosomes. In tumors, chromosomal abnormalities are normal. Aberrations in the DNA repair process might initiate instability in the genome, which can drive further progression of disease. The genetic code is the real player in the entire process, 100,000 to10 million proteins, which in (pre)malignant cells can likewise be modified several ways.

Over the previous decade, our insight into the human genome and Genomics (the investigation of the human genome) in (pre)malignancies has expanded massively and Proteomics (the investigation of the protein supplement of the genome) has taken off too. Both will assume an undeniably significant part.

Applications are as yet restricted, however the proof so far is promising. Will genomics replace traditional disease identification or the other prognostic methodology? In case of breast cancer, the array of gene expression is more effective than the conventional methods, however in endometrial hyperplasia, features that are quantitatively morphological are more expensive than the genetic testing. It is still too soon to make solid arguments, the more so in light of the fact that it is expected that genomics and proteomics will grow quickly. Notwithstanding, all things considered, they will assume a focal position in the monitoring, diagnosis and understanding  cancers.

Conclusions

This article contains key concepts and information related to “Omics” Sciences, specifically Genomics and Proteomics.

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Dr. Abdullah Arsalan

I am Abdullah Arsalan , Completed my PhD in Biotechnology. I have 7 years of research experience. I have published 6 papers so far in the journals of international repute with an average impact factor of 4.5 and few more are in consideration. I have presented research papers in various national and international conferences. My subject area of interest is biotechnology and biochemistry with special emphasis on Protein chemistry, enzymology, immunology, biophysical techniques and molecular biology.